Eurasian Mesolithic Period Origins of Domestication

The Mesolithic period (basically meaning middle stone) is traditionally that time period in the Old World between the last glaciation at the end of the Paleolithic (~12,000 years ago ore 10,000 BCE) and the beginning of the Neolithic (~5000 BCE), when farming communities began to be established. During the first three thousand years of what scholars recognize as the Mesolithic, a period of climatic instability made life difficult in Europe, with gradual warming abruptly switching to 1,200 years of very cold dry weather called the Younger Dryas. By 9,000 BCE, the climate had stabilized to close to what it is today. During the Mesolithic, humans learned to hunt in groups and to fish  and began to learn how to domesticate animals and plants. Climate Change and the Mesolithic Climate changes during the Mesolithic included the retreat of the Pleistocene glaciers, a steep rise in sea levels, and the extinction of megafauna (large-bodied animals). These changes were accompanied by a growth in forests and a major redistribution of animals and plants. After the climate stabilized, people moved northward into previously glaciated areas  and adopted new subsistence methods. Hunters targeted medium-bodied animals like red and roe deer, auroch, elk, sheep, goat, and ibex. Marine mammals, fish, and shellfish were heavily used in coastal areas, and huge shell middens are associated with Mesolithic sites along the coasts throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. Plant resources such as hazelnuts, acorns, and nettles became an important part of Mesolithic diets. Mesolithic Technology During the Mesolithic period, humans began the first steps in land management. Swamps and wetlands were purposely burned, chipped and ground stone axes were used to cut down trees for fires, and for constructing living quarters and fishing vessels. Stone tools were made from microliths—tiny chips of stone made from blades or bladelets and set into toothed slots in bone or antler shafts. Tools made of composite material—bone, antler, wood combined with stone—were used to create a variety of harpoons, arrows, and fish hooks. Nets and seines were developed for fishing and trapping small game; the first fish weirs, deliberate traps placed in streams, were constructed. Boats and canoes were built, and the first roads called wooden trackways were built to safely cross wetlands. Pottery and ground stone tools were first made during the Late Mesolithic, although they did not come into prominence until the Neolithic. Settlement Patterns of the Mesolithic Reconstruction of a Mesolithic hut, at ArcheoLink in Aberdeen, Scotland. Kenny Kennford / 500Px Plus / Getty Images Mesolithic hunter-gatherers moved seasonally, following animal migrations and plant changes. In many areas, large permanent or semi-permanent communities were located on the coasts, with smaller temporary hunting camps located further inland. Mesolithic houses had sunken floors, which varied in outline from round to rectangular, and were built of wooden posts around a central hearth. Interactions between Mesolithic groups included the widespread exchange of raw materials and finished tools; genetic data suggest that there was also large-scale population movement and intermarriage across Eurasia. Recent archaeological studies have convinced archaeologists that Mesolithic hunter-gatherers were instrumental in beginning the long slow process of domesticating plants and animals. The traditional switch to Neolithic ways of life was fueled in part by an intensifying emphasis on those resources, rather than the fact of domestication. Mesolithic Art and Ritual Behaviors Decidedly unlike the predecessor Upper Paleolithic art, Mesolithic art is geometric, with a restricted range of colors, dominated by the use of red ochre. Other art objects include painted pebbles, ground stone beads, pierced shells and teeth, and amber. Artifacts found at the Mesolithic site of Star Carr included some red deer antler headdresses. The Mesolithic period also saw the first small cemeteries; the largest so far discovered is at Skateholm in Sweden, with 65 interments. Burials varied: some were inhumations, some cremations, some highly ritualized skull nests associated with evidence of large-scale violence. Some of the burials included grave goods, such as tools, jewelry, shells, and animal and human figurines. Archaeologists have suggested that these are evidence of the emergence of social stratification. Megalithic tomb near Lacken-Granitz, Ruegen, or Rugia, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. Hans Zaglitsch / imageBROKER / Getty Images The first megalithic tombs—collective burial places constructed of large stone blocks—were constructed at the end of the Mesolithic period. The oldest of these are in the Upper Alentejo region of Portugal and along the Brittany coast; they were constructed between 4700–4500 BCE. Warfare in the Mesolithic In general, hunter-gather-fishers such as the Mesolithic people of Europe exhibit significantly lower levels of violence than do herders and horticulturalists.  But, by the end of the Mesolithic, ~5000 BCE, a very high percentage of skeletons recovered from Mesolithic burials show some evidence of violence: 44 percent in Denmark; 20 percent in Sweden and France. Archaeologists suggest that the violence arose towards the end of the Mesolithic because of social pressure resulting from competition for resources, as Neolithic farmers vied with hunter-gatherers over rights to land. Selected Sources Allaby, R. G. Evolution . Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Ed. Kliman, Richard M. Oxford: Academic Press, 2016. 19–24. Print.and Agriculture I. The Evolution of DomesticationBailey, G. Archaeological Records: Postglacial Adaptations. Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science (Second Edition). Ed. Mock, Cary J. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2013. 154–59. Print.Boyd, Brian. Archaeology and Human-Animal Relations: Thinking through Anthropocentrism. Annual Review of Anthropology 46.1 (2017): 299–316. Print.Gà ¼nther, Torsten, and Mattias Jakobsson. Genes Mirror Migrations and Cultures in Prehistoric Europe—a Population Genomic Perspective. Current Opinion in Genetics Development 41 (2016): 115–23. Print.Lee, Richard B. Hunter-Gatherers and Human Evolution: New Light on Old Debates. Annual Review of Anthropology 47.1 (2018): 513–31. Print.Petraglia, M. D., and R. Dennell. Archaeological Records: Global Expansion 300,000–8000 Years Ago, Asia. Encyclo pedia of Quaternary Science (Second Edition). Ed. Mock, Cary J. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2013. 98–107. Print.Sà ©gurel, Laure, and Cà ©line Bon. On the Evolution of Lactase Persistence in Humans. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 18.1 (2017): 297–319. Print.

The Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne - 1657 Words

Arthur Dimmesdale is one of the four major characters in the novel The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Although Hester Prynne is the character most readers consider to be the most influential, he is of equal importance to the novel. Arthur Dimmesdale is a young reverend that plays an important role in the Puritan community. To the people who reside in the small puritan town In Boston, Arthur Dimmesdale is considered to be the example of what it means to be â€Å"pure† and â€Å"holy† as a genuine believer in the Puritan faith. One can describe Arthur Dimmesdale as a young individual with a pale complexion. He would be physically delicate, with frail arms and frail body. A well educated individual with a strong devotion to god. Dimmesdale is passionate about his religion, which results in his inability to allow his sin to be forgiven or forgotten. Dimmesdale and Hester Prynne fall in love and commit an act of adultery. Hester Prynne was married to Roger Chil lingworth who is one of the four major characters in the novel and Arthur Dimmesdale was essentially â€Å"married† to God. Hester Prynne struggles with being publicly shamed and forced to wear the red letter â€Å"A† wherever she goes. However when she refuses to reveal whom she committed the sin with, Arthur Dimmesdale must suffer with the knowledge that god and him are the only ones who know of the sin he has committed. Private guilt can at times be much more cruel and unforgiving. As an emotional individual he isShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1242 Words   |  5 PagesLYS PAUL Modern Literature Ms. Gordon The Scarlet Letter The scarlet letter is book written by Nathaniel Hawthorne who is known as one the most studied writers because of his use of allegory and symbolism. He was born on July 4, 1804 in the family of Nathaniel, his father, and Elizabeth Clark Hathorne his mother. Nathaniel added â€Å"W† to his name to distance himself from the side of the family. His father Nathaniel, was a sea captain, and died in 1808 with a yellow fever while at sea. That was aRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne960 Words   |  4 Pages3H 13 August 2014 The novel, The Scarlet Letter, was written by the author Nathaniel Hawthorne and was published in 1850 (1). It is a story about the Puritan settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, set around 1650 (2). The story is written in the third person with the narrator being the author. The common thread that runs through this novel is Hawthorne’s apparent understanding of the beliefs and culture of the Puritans in America at that time. But Hawthorne is writing about events in a societyRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne919 Words   |  4 Pagessymbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†. Symbolism is when an object is used in place of a different object. Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of the most symbolic writers in all of American history. In â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the letter â€Å"A† is used to symbolize a variety of different concepts. The three major symbolistic ideas that the letter â€Å"A† represents in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter† are; shame, guilt, and ability. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the firstRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1397 Words   |  6 PagesFebruary 2016 The Scarlet Letter was written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in 1850 which is based on the time frame of the Puritans, a religious group who arrived in Massachusetts in the 1630’s. The Puritans were in a religious period that was known for the strict social norms in which lead to the intolerance of different lifestyles. Nathaniel Hawthorne uses the puritan’s strict lifestyles to relate to the universal issues among us. The time frame of the puritans resulted in Hawthorne eventually thinkingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne999 Words   |  4 Pages Nathaniel Hawthorne is the author of the prodigious book entitled The Scarlet Letter. In The Scarlet Letter, Hester Prynne commits adultery with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. Her husband, Roger Chillingworth, soon finds out about the incident after it becomes clear that she is pregnant. The whole town finds out and Hester is tried and punished. Meanwhile, Roger Chillingworth goes out then on a mission to get revenge by becoming a doctor and misprescribing Dimmesdale. He does this to torture DimmesdaleRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne1037 Words   |  5 Pagesthat human nature knows right from wrong, but is naturally evil and that no man is entirely â€Å"good†. Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of the classic novel The Scarlet Letter, believes that every man is innately good and Hawthorne shows that everyone has a natural good side by Hester’s complex character, Chillingworth’s actions and Dimmesdale’s selfless personality. At the beginning of the Scarlet Letter Hester Prynne is labeled as the â€Å"bad guy†. The townspeople demand the other adulterer’s name, butRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1517 Words   |  7 PagesNathaniel Hawthorne composes Pearl as a powerful character even though she is not the main one. Her actions not only represent what she is as a person, but what other characters are and what their actions are. Hawthorne makes Pearl the character that helps readers understand what the other characters are. She fits perfectly into every scene she is mentioned in because of the way her identity and personality is. Pearl grows throughout the book, which in the end, help the readers better understandRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne1488 Words   |  6 Pages In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel The Scarlet Letter, the main character, Hester Prynne, is a true contemporary of the modern era, being cast into 17th century Puritan Boston, Massachusetts. The Scarlet Letter is a revolutionary novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne examining the ugliness, complexity, and strength of the human spirit and character that shares new ideas about independence and the struggles women faced in 17th century America. Throughout the novel, Hester’s refusal to remove the scarlet letterRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1319 Words   |  6 PagesPrynne and Arthur Dimmesdale are subject to this very notion in Nathaniel Hawthorne s The Scarlet Letter. Hester simply accepted that what she had done was wrong, whereas Dimmesdale, being a man of high regard, did not want to accept the reality of what he did. Similar to Hester and Dimmesdale, Roger Chillingworth allows his emotions to influence his life; however, his influence came as the result of hi s anger. Throughout the book, Hawthorne documents how Dimmesdale and Hester s different ways of dealingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1714 Words   |  7 PagesSome two hundred years following the course of events in the infamous and rigid Puritan Massachusetts Colony in the 1600s, Nathaniel Hawthorne, descendant of a Puritan magistrate, in the 19th century, published The Scarlet Letter. Wherein such work, Hawthorne offered a social critique against 17th Massachusetts through the use of complex and dynamic characters and literary Romanticism to shed light on said society’s inherent contradiction to natural order and natural law. In his conclusive statements

The Self-Made Man of the Great Gatsby free essay sample

The ideal of a self-made man is quite American. It is the idea that someone from a humble background can become someone of great importance and wealth through sheer willpower and hard work. The self-made man’s success is not based off his background or the help of others but his own intrinsic values and qualities. It is this idea that allows James Gatz to become Jay Gatsby, and it is this idea that also ironically becomes his downfall. Gatsby is a self-made man, the embodiment of the American dream, and undergoes a reinvention of himself in order to achieve his goals. In chapter six of The Great Gatsby, Scott Fitzgerald figuratively expresses Jay Gatsby’s transformation, ambition and ascension in social class. Gatsby is self-made in more than one sense. He represents the American ideal of a self-made man, but he also discards his old identity of James Gatz and remakes himself into Jay Gatsby. This reinvented self â€Å"sprang from his Platonic conception of himself. He was a son of God † (92). The phrase â€Å"platonic conception† indicates that Gatsby’s identity was the product of only himself and his imagination and involved no other person. This idea of being conceived from only one person parallels with the comparison of Gatsby to the â€Å"son of God,† who was also conceived from only one person. By posing Gatsby as a Jesus figure, Fitzgerald reveals Gatsby as a paragon with noble characteristics. This comparison emphasizes the transformation of Gatsby or in a sense, his resurrection. James Gatz’s life was leading nowhere except his unhappy death. However, Jay Gatsby has the opportunity to succeed and live happily if not for unfortunate circumstances. As a part of his transformation under Dan Cody’s guidance, â€Å"he was left with his singularly appropriate education; the vague contour of Jay Gatsby had filled out to the substantiality of a man† (93). Gatsby never quite finished a formal education, so working with Dan Cody gave him the â€Å"singularly appropriate education† to succeed. Part of the American Dream is to receive a quality education, and most self-made men achieve success through formal education or self-education. However, just like his new self-invented identity, Gatsby’s education from Dan Cody is at best questionable and at worst shallow and intangible. From the conception of Jay Gatsby to this moment, Jay Gatsby’s existence had only been â€Å"vague† and ethereal, without any real substance or plausibility to it. Perhaps that is because in the beginning even James Gatz doubted the existence of Gatsby. After this fully completed transformation, Gatsby is a â€Å"man† with real â€Å"substantiality,† dreams and thoughts. The education he received allowed him to believe in the plausibility of Gatsby and that the identity of Gatsby could find his fortune somewhere in America. Gatsby’s intense ambition for success characterizes him as the archetypal self-made man. Because of his desire for success, â€Å"the most grotesque and fantastic conceits haunted him in his bed at night. A universe of ineffable gaudiness spun itself out in his brain † (92). Gatsby was sure he was bound for a successful future, so sure that â€Å"conceits† pervaded his dreams at night. The word â€Å"conceits† connotes hubris and arrogance, flaws that many self-made men perhaps are guilty of having but never showing. Additionally, â€Å"grotesque† and â€Å"haunted† have negative connotations of fear or unattractiveness, which signifies that perhaps Gatsby is overly ambitious to the point where it exposes his negative traits. The â€Å"gaudiness† of his dreams and thoughts reflect in the lifestyle that he ambitiously works towards and achieves, indicated by the extravagant parties and luxuries later in his life. Ambition generally benefited Gatsby, dissuading him from enduring â€Å"janitor’s work† (92) throughout his brief college experience. If he was unambitiously satisfied with â€Å"janitor’s work† and completed college, he would’ve never been bestowed the opportunity of meeting Dan Cody or his business connections. Gatsby embodies the traditional rising in social class from â€Å"rags to riches† archetype among stories of self-made men. Coming from humble beginnings, â€Å"his parents were shiftless and unsuccessful farm people† (91). Whereas they were â€Å"shiftless† and lacked ambition, Gatsby did not, so he wished to stray as far from their path as possible. He wanted to be anything but a part of the â€Å"unsuccessful farm people,† who are representative of lower class laborers. His background accounted largely for his failure in securing Daisy. For a year after the war, Gatsby was stuck with the situation the world provided him and had to work â€Å"as a clam digger and a salmon fisher or in any other capacity that brought him food and bed† (92). â€Å"Clam digger† and â€Å"salmon fisher† are presumably low-paying jobs, as he only took the jobs out of necessity to provide himself â€Å"food and bed. † As a result of meeting Dan Cody, Gatsby was able to apply his ambition rather than squander it on menial jobs. Although he received no large sum of money in the end of his tutelage, Gatsby was armed with knowledge that would provide him his fortune. Gatsby is in many ways the archetypal self-made man, and he works his way up society through hard work and an education. However, like the American Dream and society in the 1920s, the ideal of the self-made man is corrupted in Gatsby. His education was from a debauchee and gave him the means to a fortune through crime rather than honest ingenuity. His ambition provided him success but also developed inside him a hubris and arrogance that is generally not associated with self-made men. However, due to his incorruptible and noble goal of Daisy’s love, perhaps Gatsby turned out alright in the end.

Product Life Cycle

Introduction According to definition provided in the biology sciences, living things follow a rigid development lifecycle of birth, growth, maturity and death. This cycle forms the basis for the concept of product lifecycle and, by extension, a framework for describing the path a certain product will follow in a particular period of time.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Product Life Cycle specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In product management, this concept comprises of introduction, growth, maturity and decline stage. In the introduction stage, it takes some time for a product to be accepted by the public, but by the time it reaches the growth stage it is able to attract many customers. In maturity stage, its market even out as competitors develop competitive products, and its popularity declines. Old products are finally withdrawn from the market marking decline (Marketing Teacher, 2000, Para 1). Since PLC depic ts the product path from the launching period, it is a perfect tool for managing a product. Organizations can establish customer demands and alter the products features to meet these requirements. In addition, it helps the organization to determine when cost recovery will commence, as well as define the volume of transactions. This information is important to the organization for two reasons. First of all, it is possible to tell when a product can be introduced or withdrawn from a market. Secondly, it gives information about a product success or failure, as well as its position relative to competitors’ products. However, PLC has its limitation, especially it lacks for the universality in application (Tellis, nd, 6). This paper discusses the concept of PLC and how it is applied to cost recovery. It further examines how the concept has been successfully applied in development of technological products by Apple Inc. Stages of Product Life Cycle In addition to the four stages in figure 1 presented, I will also discuss the development phase in this section. Figure 1. The Product Life CycleAdvertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Source: Christiansen et al, 2010 p 801 Development Phase This phase involves the conception of a product idea and various changes made on the basis of the original mode before it is being developed into a final product. The model product is passed through the test market before being delivered to the target customers. In the development stage, company does not generate any revenue, although it incurs expenditures. This stage is followed by launching of the model product that survives test market. Introduction Stage At this stage, the product adopted after development phase is launched. The company’s goal in this stage is to ensure that the product will have maximum impact by the time it goes in the market. This is why it is n ecessary to take into account the customer’s demands that a product should meet (Haslam, 1989, p. 20-21). Because of promotion at this stage, the costs are high, advertisements and need for equipment for distribution are needed, and thus, this phase involves spending with little returns (NetMBA, 2002, Para 2). Some companies prefer to outsource some functions such as distribution in order to reduce the cost. The main goal of this stage is to establish a customer loyalty and increase product demand. Growth Stage A product that makes to this stage enjoys public awareness and significant rise in sales. As a result, the company is satisfied because it can now start recovering its initial costs (Business 101 — The Basics, Nd, 7). Because of the increased public awareness, distributors readily accept the product since it is easy to market. Consequently, the company derives profit and recovers initial expenditure. This stage is an opportune moment to maximize product market s hare. Products that are new entrants into the market gain market share quite easily (Komninos, 2002, 6). However, as the market expands, competition begins to emerge and, as a result, prices begin to decline.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Product Life Cycle specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Maturity Previous stage competitions continue and increase in strength and ferocity. This is because more competitors have begun to develop similar products. Competition to maintain the market share becomes intense and profits starts to dwindle. Differentiation of strategies applied in order to survive in this market that were initiated at the previous stage are widely used. The result of this differentiation is a market that has many product models. At the beginning of this stage and end of the previous one, sales have reached their peak levels. Customers are already familiar with the products and they have several substitu tes to choose from, thus demand depends on customer preference of a products feature. Since the brand is established, advertisement expenditure is minimal. Profit margins are also low as key players cut their prices in order to maintain market share. The best companies and products are the ones that stand competition at this stage. Thus, the main goal of this stage is to expand product market share from previous stage. Decline Stage At this stage, many companies abandon the market as demand for their products decreases due to the fact that customers change their tastes and preferences. This tendency provokes the development of more competitive products. According to Avlonitis (2002, 14), the company’s strategies influences the decline of a product, as well as the generation of this products. Old products will attract little customer demand, but companies that have highly differentiated products may continue to make profit (Perreault et al, 2009, 243). As a result, companies r egister low sales in this stage due to changes in customers’ tastes and fashions. As a result, companies embark on other marketing strategies hoping to rejuvenate and extend the product line on the marketplace. Extended Example In this section, I will use iPod and iPhone products to demonstrate the differences between mature and growing market. Apple Inc is an American multicultural corporations dealing with marketing and designing of computer software, consumer electronics, and Personal computers (Markoff, 2011).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Technological products have shorter product life cycles because companies are persistently evolving and improving their products by prolonging their significance and extending their life. Apple Inc, for instance, develops new and better technology after every twelve to eighteen months and, as a result, the products it offers to its customers are always innovative and revolutionary. Figure 2. iPods Sales Chart Source: Ashcroft, Nd, 8 iPod sales trend in figure 2 shows the product cycle. Before its peak sales in 2008, various generations of the product had been introduced such as Nano, Class and Touch and iPhone in the middle of the year (Cahill, 2011, Para 2). This year, there was little competition for iPod but introduction of iPhone distracted its potential sales. Both 2008 and 2009 years presented in the figure indicate that the sales had been stabilized and afterwards started to decline. In 2010, Apple quarterly sales report revealed a decline in the sales of iPod. These sales h ad been reduced from 11 million to 10.2 in a span of three months. Figure 3. Apple Product Sales by Segment Source: Ashcroft, Nd, 8 Figure 3 shows that iPod overstayed in a maturity stage and it’s now entering its decline. On the other hand, iPhone curve shows that these days it is going into its growth stage, and it has registered an increase in sales. The company has also introduced a new product in 2009 called the iPad. However, it is iPod that has significantly contributed to the higher profits that apple has experienced. In spite of this, its sales graph has reflected the S-curve that indicates that it is undergoing the product life cycle. As we have already discussed, in order to prevent decline, it is necessary to improve the product features to rejuvenate the growth of sales. This may include development of new iPad model that will have additional feature. Different Product Market Phases and Their Impact on Cost Recovery In introduction phase of the product, costs ar e higher and there is no return for the company. As a result, it does not recover the cost incurred in product development at this stage. As the product progress to the third stage of PLC, company registers increased sales and the brand is be recognized, this results in further cutting the cost and increasing returns. In the maturity stage, since the product brand is already established, the company does not spend much on promotion (Nagle Hogan, 2006). In our case, iPod made more profit because it overstayed in the maturity stage, which is the phase with the least costs. Since in growth stage the company registers increasing sales, iPhone curve is rising steadily, but in the maturity, the sales volumes even out because the market is beginning to be saturated by products of different models. This PLC analysis tool is important to a company like Apple Inc, which offers goods in the technological industry where the product must be constantly enhanced. Summary Product life cycle analys is reveals different pictures for a production. In introduction stages, capital outlay is high and sales are low which results in low profits. This is followed by growth where sales volumes begin to rise and cost lowers due to decrease in advertisement and promotions costs. This stage register an increase in profits, but spending is still high as a company strives to expand market share. In maturity stage, cost gets even lower as the product brand is established, competition increase, and new generation products are developed. The product is more profitable due to lower cost in this stage. At the decline stage, sales decrease due to the fact that customers change tastes and profit margin remains intact (Marketing assignment No. 3, Nd, 7). References Ashcroft, J Nd, Apple in the digital age from the iPod to the iPad. Available from: http://www.pro-manchester.co.uk/assets/Applecasestudy.pdf. [5 December 2011]. Avlonitis, G 2001, Strategic Industrial Marketing, Stanoulis, New York. Bus iness 101 — The Basics n.d., Product and Pricing Strategies. Available from: http://faculty.piercecollege.edu/rskidmore/Ghost/library/Chapters/CHPT12-04.pdf. [5 December 2011]. Cahill, B. iPod Sales – does this graph look familiar? Available form: http://tutor2u.net/blog/index.php/business-studies/comments/ipod-sales-does-this-graph-look-familiar. [5 December 2011]. Christiansen J. K., Varnes C. J., Gasparin M.,Storm-Nielsen D. and Vinther E. J. 2010, ‘Living Twice: How a Product Goes through Multiple Life Cycles’. J PRODD MANAG 27: 797-827. Haslam, C., Neale A., Johal S. 1989, Economics in a business context, Cengage Learning EMEA London. Komninos, I. 2002, Product Life Cycle Management. Research paper for Urban and Regional Innovation research unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, pp. 1-26. Available from: http://www.urenio.org/tools/en/Product_Life_Cycle_Management.pdf. [5 December 2011]. Kotler, P., Armstrong, G. 2001, Principles of Marketing. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.  Marketing Assignment No.3. (Nd). Availablefrom: http://www.scribd.com/doc/16512298/Product-Life-Cycle. [5 December 2011]. Marketing Teacher. (2000). ‘The Product Life Cycle (PLC)’. MarketingTeacher.com. Available from: http://marketingteacher.com/lesson-store/lesson-plc.html. [5 December 2011]. Markoff, J. 2011, ‘Apple Incorporated’. The New York Times [online], available from: http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/business/companies/apple_computer_inc/index.html. [5 December 2011]. McNamara, C. n.d., Basic Overview of Organizational Life Cycles. Available from: http://www.mapnp.org/library/org_thry/org_cycl.htm. [5 December 2011]. Nagle, T. T., Hogan J. E. 2006, The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing. A guide to Growing More Profitability, Pearson Education, New Jersey. NetMBA. 2002, The Product Life Cycle. Available from http://www.netmba.com/marketing/product/lifecycle/. [5 December 2011]. Perreault, W. D., Cannon J. P., McCarth y E. J. 2009, ‘Product Management and New Product Development’. In Basic Marketing. A Marketing Strategy Planning Approach, Ed. 17 Chap 10. McGraw-Hill, New York. Tellis, G. Nd, ‘An Evolutionary Approach to product Growth Theory’. Division of Research Graduate School of Business Administration The University of Michigan.232: 1-31. This essay on Product Life Cycle was written and submitted by user Davian Reed to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.