Reflective Practice And The Effect Education Essay

Reflective Practice And The Effect Education Essay This essay aims to examine the extent that secondary school teachers understand and involve themselves in reflective practice and the effect of this for their professional development. I will discuss the term Professional Development in order to demonstrate that a change in practice is an important part of development. In the Literature Review I propose to explore a) teachers understanding of professional development, b) how they partake of reflective practice, c) the changes that can be brought about in their reflective practice and d) the issues that are associated with these changes. I believe that the knowledge that secondary teachers acquire is not sufficient in itself and that they should continually strive for professional development so that they can also encourage effective learning by their pupils. I then propose to look at the methods and questions that teachers should ask themselves so that they can identify any discrepancies between espoused theories and theories in use. This ensures that change and development can be addressed, as this identification plays an important element for professional development in which teachers can monitor any changes in practice. Espoused theories have restrictions in not being able to assess the thinking processes that teachers use to revise and change practice. This is due to the processes which are reinforced in the unconscious (theories in use). A teacher may not be aware of these processes (theories in use), and what we espouse when investigating practice, may not be similar with any actions. Espoused theories provide a structure to engage in professional exchange in order to identify discrepancies between espoused beliefs and theories in use. This applies to a large extent on the expertise in which the teacher can reflect on his or her own abilities and also helps another to reflect, question, understand and analyse classroom behaviour which concerns teaching. Beauchamp and Thomas (2009:178) have found the following statement a useful starting point in the overall perception of teacher development: Developing an identity as a teacher is an important part of securing teachers commitment to their work and adherence to professional normsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the identities teachers develop shape their dispositions, where they place their effort, whether and how they seek out professional development opportunities, and what obligations they see as intrinsic to their role. (Hammerness, Darling-Hammond, Bransford, 2005, pp. 383-384) Professional Development has been defined by Evans (2002:132) as the process whereby teachers professionality and/or professionalism may be considered to be enhanced. She defines professionality as an ideological based stance on the part of an individual in relation to the practice to which she/he belongs, and which influences her/his professional practice(2002:131). Professional Development is about becoming more expert. Stenberg(2010:331) refers to the process as extending self- knowledge. It is about questioning and changing habits that were developed in order to cope in certain situations. Mason (2002:1)notes it is a form of personal enquiry in order to broaden and deepen professional sensitivities to notice and to act. We need to understand, therefore, what constitutes the developmental process what must happen in order for teachers to develop. Evans (2002) further identifies within the term professionality, two elements which can be identified, namely Attitudinal Development and Functional Development. Attitudinal Development is the process where teachers attitudes to their work are modified ( p.132). This features an ability for the professional teacher to be reflective/analytical , and also to show elements of motivation e.g. towards a variety of aspects of their work. Clearly, reflection is at the heart of what it means to be a professional(Goodson, 2007:129) and at its best, I believe, that any outcome of reflection is always at the heart of valid self-reflection. Pollard (2005:15) states that reflective teaching implies an active concern with aims and consequences as well as means and technical competence. It is therefore clear that there are particular skills and dispositions associated with being a reflective practitioner. Reflection is widely regarded as a meaningful way for teachers to achieve a deeper sense of self (Beauchamp Thomas, 2009) Functional Development is where teachers professional performance may be improved (p132). This combines changes in the methods that teachers apply to their teaching and also the changes that teachers make in the process of improving their professional performance and as a result a change in their practice. I would argue that these two developmental features are interconnected with teachers not being able to develop one component in relation to one and not the other. Evans'(2002)definition, nonetheless, refers to both of the processes outlined above for promoting professional development( intellectual features) and to the outcomes which come out of this development (changes in processes and productivity). Days (1999)definition of professional development has considerable breadth and depth and: is the process by which, alone and others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment as change agents to the moral purposes of teaching; and by which they acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good professional thinking planning and practice with children young people and colleagues through each phase of their teaching lives.(p.4). All learning experiences, according to Day (1999), contribute to educational quality in the classroom and are part of the professional development of teachers. They are critically reflective professionals in their on-going development throughout their teaching careers. According to Bolam (2002), former Professor of Education at Cardiff Universitys School of Social Sciences, professional development is an on-going process in education, training and support activities which is aimed mainly at promoting learning and development of teachers professional knowledge, skills and values and also to help decide and implement valued changes in their teaching and learning behaviour so that they can educate their students more effectively (p.4). For Bolam, professional development is a process that is on-going whose aim is to encourage professional knowledge, values and skills. Professional development will, therefore, result in valued changes in teaching and pupils being educated more effectively. Clearly, reflection is at the heart of what it means to be a professional, (Goodson, 2007:129) and at its best, I believe, that any outcome of reflection is always at the heart of valid self-reflection. Pollard (2005:15) states that reflective teaching implies an active concern with aims and consequences as well as means and technical competence. It is therefore clear that there are particular skills and dispositions associated with being a reflective practitioner. Reflection is widely regarded as a meaningful way for teachers to achieve a deeper sense of self (Beauchamp Thomas, 2009) Reflective practice is fundamental to teacher professional development as it is a core activity within the profession. Teachers who engage in reflective practice need not only to have competencies but also attitudes. When Dewey defined reflective action as behaviour which involves active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or practice in light of the grounds that support it and the further consequences to which it leads (1910:9), he believed that the attitudes of a) open-mindedness, b) responsibility and c) wholeheartedness were necessary for suitable reflective action (1910:29,34). These then were adapted by Pollard (2003:17), and accepted as a major component of professional commitment. Wholeheartedness. Aspiring to develop professional development thereby enabling engaging in reflection and aspiration towards reflection in order to progress in our professional capacity. Open-mindedness. This attitude makes us consider different ways of reflective teaching by investigating other practices rather than relying on their own. I would suggest that, however open-minded we are, we should examine critically whether another practice would suit our own educational goal in our teaching. Responsibility. Professionals who accept responsibility of their action also accept accountability for their enhanced performance which produces better outcomes. Together, these three attitudes need to be demonstrated by teachers whose objectives are to be reflective teachers. In the work of Zeichner and Liston(1996:6)this responsibility for professional commitment is clearly linked to reflective practice: When embracing the concepts of reflective teaching, there is often a commitment by teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.to take responsibility for their own professional development. This assumption of responsibility is a central feature of the idea of the reflective teacher. Day (1999) constitutes change as part of planning and professional thinking which contribute to changes in practice because teachers planning and thinking will certainly lead to reflection in what they will do in their classrooms. For Calderhead(2012:11) , planning is not a rational or linear process but a much more creative, interactive, problem finding and problem solving process where a teacher might start with an idea and through various multi-faceted strategies of reflexivity, eventually come to form a classroom activity or activities. Consequently, the major outcome of professional developmental planning is change in practice and, I believe, is a direct function of the adeptness of teachers. Any change is founded upon personal ethical values. We are what we do rather than what we say we are (Bolton 2005.) It is difficult to gain clarification regarding ethical issues expressed in practice, its much easier to say what we believe. Argyris and Schà ¶n(1974:6-7) developed theories of action which demonstrate how changes in behaviour could be achieved. They note that there are two types of theories of action, namely espoused theories and theories in use. Espoused theories represent what we say we believe, we mean to do or actually do. In contrast, theories in use describe what we actually do and the beliefs and theories which have determined what we do. Another contribution by Argyris and Schà ¶n(1974:19) is the difference between single loop learning and double loop learning. Single-loop learning involves enabling people to develop knowledge and skills appropriate to and defined by present circumstances while, in contrast double- loop learning involves redefining the nature of problems faced by an individual and learning how to cope with the new understanding. In single loop learning, the teacher will strive to learn more skills to further increase class control but will not address the fundamental problem that his theory in use is not working. He may consider that maintaining such strict control is disadvantageous to his own effectiveness as a teacher. If he does so, he may now strive to acquire skills that allow for the development for more inclusive teaching styles, greater pupil involvement and a deepening of the learning experience. Such a response can be seen as double loop learning learning that the original theory in use was ineffective and then acquiring skills to modify the theory in use to bring it more in line with the espoused theory with a focus that is deeper and broader than they had previously attempted. Tomlinson(1995:72), nonetheless, recommends us to be alert to the possibility of deskilling ourselves when we try to perform consciously and deliberately actions and skill that are intuitive through experience. For Er aut(2004: 51)its reflecting critically upon that evidence, without necessarily having to explain tacit knowledge that is functioning well. However, if that knowledge is ineffective, the situation has to be reviewed and tacit knowledge subjected to scrutiny. Differentiating between the two theories is central to the work of Argyris and Schà ¶n. One of the main factors which moves the individual from single-loop to double-loop is feedback. The teacher who continues to increase classroom control is unlikely to seek feedback but the teacher who changes his theory-in-use is far more likely to seek feedback from colleagues and pupils when he runs into problems. Tomlinson (1995:26) notes that Schà ¶n and Dreyfus and Dreyfus assume that the acquisition of systematic capabilities like teaching must be seen as requiring assistance from others. One outcome of theory in use is that practitioners are not aware of what their experience has taught them about their practice. They may perform their practice with great expertise but not be able to explicitly describe their actions. The reason being is that actions are supported by theories which are in-built in the unconscious and that cannot be expressed. Teachers may not be aware of all that has taken place while in action or the knowledge about how to perform their practice. According to Osterman and Kottkamp(1993:7) a professional colleague can identify behavioural regularities and also the assumptions that lie beneath them. These behavioural regularities refer to our patterns of behaviour which become second nature to us despite perhaps being ineffective. This, I would argue, are the inconsitencies between espoused theories and theories-in-use that we, as reflective educators, are unaware of. Schà ¶n(1987) uses the term knowing in action in order to show that people know what to do while in action and stresses that knowing in action is implicit. The knowing is in the action (1987:25). However, what this model neglects, according to Thompson and Pascal (2012), is what they refer to as reflection-for-action. This is an aspect of reflective practice that Schà ¶n did not discuss. It refers to the process of planning, thinking ahead about what is to come, so that one can draw on experience (and the professional knowledge base implicit within it) in order to make the best use of the time resources available. While discussing reflective practice in Higher Education, Brockbank and McGill (1998:72) have also noted that even if they are clear as regards the process they follow in order to enable students to learn, there may be an entire range of unintended actions on their part as well as their students. Its only when this application of their practice is brought to their attention, that they are aware of it. One outcome of the unconscious existence of theories in use is inconsistencies between theories in use and espoused theories or between actions and outcomes. Many educators have theories in their head (espoused theories) and yet they behave in ways which are quite dissimilar (theories in use). Is this because they are unaware of the theories- in- use in our unconscious? Teachers may have an idea in their conscious about their actions which may differ from their theories-in-use and even though the outcomes of their actions are inadequate, they may keep applying the same approach with the hope that this approach will, at some time in the future, produce desirable outcomes. These theories-in-use are so deep-rooted within peoples unconscious, that they take them for granted and therefore cannot measure them and cannot see the relationship between their actions and the unacceptable outcomes. Awareness of theories-in-use can be realized when people describe their own actions. Osterman and Kottkamp (1993) define reflective practice as a means by which practitioners can develop à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a greater level of self-awareness about the nature and impact of their performance, an awareness that creates opportunities for professional growth and development (1993:19). Personal reflection may not lead to any significant change and as a result theories-in-use run the risk of remaining implicit. Dadds(1993:287) perceives that we are more likely to remain open to further learning and professional development if we have the support of acquaintances that can help us through the potentially dangerous processes of self-evaluation. However, Eraut(2004:49) notes that the purpose of a reflection episode is not always clear, and may differ among the participants. Sometimes an individual can reflect rather vaguely or if other members of the group have very different agendas. Any positive outcome will depend on having sufficient time, the quality of the relationships within the group and the expertise of any facilitators. Educators can also espouse a broad range of beliefs. Teachers beliefs or conceptions about teaching and learning influence strongly how they teach and what pupils achieve. Belief must be inferred and because it can be problematic to uncover teachers beliefs, most of the research in this area has been case studies as quantitative methods would not be able to compare without difficulty. Pajares ( 1992) proposed that beliefs can be defined as : An individuals judgement of the truth or falsity of a proposition, a judgement that can only be inferred from a collective understanding of what human beings, say, intend and do (1992: 316) According to Calderhead (1996:719) there are five main areas in which teachers have significant beliefs. These are : i) Learners and learning. This belief looks at how pupils learn and how likely they are to influence how teachers approach teaching tasks and their interaction with their pupils. ii) Teaching. This belief refers to the learning environment and the purpose of teaching. iii) Subjects or curriculum. This belief refers at the content of the curriculum, the effect of knowledge within these subjects and the aptitude by teachers in carrying out tasks within their subject. iv) Learning to teach. This belief refers to professional development and how educators learn to teach. v) About the self and the nature of teaching. These are the beliefs that teachers have about themselves and their roles in teaching. Calderhead implied,also, that : à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦such areas, however, could well be interconnected, so that beliefs about teaching, for instance, may be closely related to beliefs about learning and the subject(1996:719). There seems to be a recurring theme that what teachers believe in one area of instruction impacts on practices and conceptions in the other domains. My belief of assessment, for example, is shaped by my conceptualisation of learning and teaching and therefore, affect the way that I teach and assess. In order to produce as many espoused beliefs as possible, questions must be asked about beliefs in all of Calderheads five domains. As educators we need to ask questions of a more extensive nature which refer to our beliefs, goals and values. By reflecting on these questions, espoused theories can be elicited. Our responsibilities, therefore, as teachers, is to make the tacit explicit. Shulman (1988:22) also points out that teachers will become better educators when they begin to have explicit answers to certain questions. Osterman and Kottkamp (2004) suggest: Why did events take place as they did? What ideas and feelings prompted my actions? Did my actions correspond with my intentions? Did my actions lead to the outcomes I intended? (2004:49) Shulman(1993:34) says that answering such questions not only makes a teacher become skilled but it also requires a combination of reflection on practical experience as well as theoretical understanding. Ghaye (2011) suggest the use of value statements where information is collected about espoused beliefs and which can begin with the words I believeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ followed by the word becauseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The first half of the statement is concerned with the what, while the second half focuses on why, or the rationale for the what . (2011:102) Convery (2001:139) maintains that reflection can only be developed in social and emotional circumstances. This is in contrast with Schà ¶ns lack of attention to the role of dialogue in teachers learning as reflection is also a social process requiring, what I would emphasise as collaborative discussion, to allow the development of a critical perspective and also that cognitive skills are developed as a means of improving practice. Cognitive skills refer to espoused theories and beliefs, values, actions and attitudes. Emotional aspects denote feelings. Osterman and Kottkamp (1993:20) note that feelings are essential because actions are influenced by feelings as well as actions. Teachers could be asked to describe feelings that encouraged certain action, in order to further explore the theories-in-use where people can become aware of how unconsciously expectations reinforce their actions when they are forced to reflect on their feelings and deliberate how certain feelings make them think and behave. Osterman and Kottkamp (1993) note that only by understanding the personal reaction of ourselves and others can we come to a full understanding of the problem and develop appropriate solutions. (1993:24). This is also endorsed by Brockbank and McGill (1998:85) who maintain that part of the skill in facilitating reflective learning though reflective dialogue is to grapple with that tendency for inter-personal collusion. Any self-reflection needs to be supported and supplemented by dialogue by a professional colleague which will add to the potentiality for reflecting over and above that which one would undertake on his own. Brockbank and McGill suggest that this form of questioning can encourage teachers to look at traits of behaviour that they might be oblivious to. Indeed, asking professionals to explore aspects of their teaching processes, which could have been easily overlooked, can be helpful in their professional development. This is because teachers would be required to express areas of their practice which they would never have reflected on without inspiration from their co-workers or critical friendships'(Day, 1995:123), which increases the possibilities of moving though stages of reflection to confrontation of thinking and practice within professional development to reinforce a sense of responsibility by affirming confidence in teachers professionalism ( Day, 1995: 124) As a result, discrepancies are easily identified between actions and outcomes. Another way of noticing discrepancies between espoused theories and theories-in-use is to question or compare expectations and perceptions held by the person who is describing the practice and those who listen. Loughran (2006:57) notes that working with colleaguesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦provides the opportunity of gaining advice and feedbackà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and of continuing to push to make the tacit explicit. Livingston and Schiach (2010:85-86) note that a collaborative approach will result in better outcomes by bringing together different perspectives and having the opportunity to develop mutual understanding to create new knowledge and meaning. Listening to assumptions of other teachers about what strengthens a particular teachers practice can improve the identification of discrepancies of behaviour. As a result, the teacher can reflect whether what he espouses about practice is similar with others thinking of what is happening in action. As a result of this, any discrepancies between actions and outcomes are revealed and one can ask whether these assumptions are appropriate for what we aim to achieve in our practice or whether we should discuss other alternative interpretations for a different outcome and improvements. Once these improvements in our practice are put in place , once can reflect further on the nature of these improvements(Ghaye and Ghaye, 1998). One can examine whether the method to achieve these improvements has taken place as espoused where there is a discrepancy between beliefs and action, or whether the level of these improvements is the expected where there is a discrepancy between actions and outcome s. Consequently, personal growth and development is possible when an awareness of the nature and influence of an action is developed. As a result, does a teachers action lead to preferred outcomes, or are those actions associated with espoused theories? These discrepancies can be identified either between espoused theories and theories-in use or between actions and outcomes. Academics agree that engaging in reflective practice is neither a direct process nor a process with a predetermined conclusion. It is a process that is recurring (Argyris and Shà ¶n, 1974; Day, 1999; Osterman and Kottkamp, 1993; Pollard, 2002). When educators involve themselves in reflective practice they aim to bring about substantial changes in practice in which they will achieve their long-term goals and their aim of developing professionally. This can only be achieved if they become aware of their underlying theories-in-use and being able to recognize the discrepancies between espoused theories and theories-in-use. This process gives them the opportunity to move between different stages of reflection. They may have taken on board a colleagues recommendations, for example and begun to identify discrepancies of behaviour. This would make them aware of other aspects of their practice before reflection on new ways of action. As a result, the cycle of reflection begins again. To conclude, this essay has attempted to take an overview of professional development through reflective practice in terms of the literature, what is meant by reflection, the key Theorists associated with Reflection, and its practical use in professional practice. Change in practice plays an important part in professional development and, while I believe that self-reflection is important, it can only be achieved by reflecting with other colleagues where espoused theories and theories in use can be identified and developed to further professional development where the objective is to identify discrepancies between espoused theories and theories in use.

The Bright Future of Genetic Engineering Essay -- Exploratory Essays R

The Bright Future of Genetic Engineering Imagine the major food crops - corn, wheat, rice, soybeans - which can resist diseases - and resist pests - and create their own fertilizers - and resist extremes of weather. Imagine potatoes containing more protein, and other vegetables and fruits which contain more nutrients, taste better and resist rot. Can you imagine tomatoes that actually taste like tomatoes. Imagine what such food crops could mean for a world population which will double in less than 40 years. Imagine a fundamental revolution in health care - with treatments and perhaps even cures for heart disease, arthritis, Alzheimer’s, cancer and AIDS. Richard J. Mahoney, 1993 (Wekesser 30) Genetic engineering is a topic which has come under great scrutiny and debate. Since its appearance on the scientific stage in 1973 (Wekesser 23), it has been heralded as everything from the discovery of a fountain of youth to the harbinger of the death of humanity. In reality, genetic engineering is none of theses things. In simple terms, it is merely the utilization of one or more techniques for the purpose of modifying the DNA of an organism (Britannica V, 178). By modifying DNA, scientists today can eliminate some genetic diseases, they can manipulate plants and animals for increased food production and they can help protect against certain environmental hazards. Though genetic engineering is still in its infancy, its potential to benefit mankind is unprecedented. As such, it is a field that must be explored to its fullest. There are many facets to genetic engineering. The most common of these is recombinant DNA. This is a process through which the DNA of one organism is taken and combined with the DNA of another organism. The... ... Heredity: The Physical Basis of Heredity.?The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Macropedia. 15th ed., 1989. â€Å"Genetic Engineering.?The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Micropedia. 15th ed., 1989. McCuen, Gary E. Manipulating Life: Debating the Genetic Revolution. Hudson, Wisconsin: Gary E. McCuen Publications Inc., 1985. O’Neill, Terry, ed. Biomedical Ethics: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1994. Rosenthal, Nadia. â€Å"Molecular Medicine: Tools of the Trade - Recombinant DNA.?The New England Journal of Medicine 04 August 1994: 315+. Ubell, Earl. â€Å"Should You Consider Gene TestingParade 12 January 1997: 8+. Voelker, Rebecca. â€Å"A Clone by Any Other Name Is Still an Ethical Concern.?Journal of the American Medical Association 02 February 1994: 331+. Wekesser, Carol, ed. Genetic Engineering: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1994. The Bright Future of Genetic Engineering Essay -- Exploratory Essays R The Bright Future of Genetic Engineering Imagine the major food crops - corn, wheat, rice, soybeans - which can resist diseases - and resist pests - and create their own fertilizers - and resist extremes of weather. Imagine potatoes containing more protein, and other vegetables and fruits which contain more nutrients, taste better and resist rot. Can you imagine tomatoes that actually taste like tomatoes. Imagine what such food crops could mean for a world population which will double in less than 40 years. Imagine a fundamental revolution in health care - with treatments and perhaps even cures for heart disease, arthritis, Alzheimer’s, cancer and AIDS. Richard J. Mahoney, 1993 (Wekesser 30) Genetic engineering is a topic which has come under great scrutiny and debate. Since its appearance on the scientific stage in 1973 (Wekesser 23), it has been heralded as everything from the discovery of a fountain of youth to the harbinger of the death of humanity. In reality, genetic engineering is none of theses things. In simple terms, it is merely the utilization of one or more techniques for the purpose of modifying the DNA of an organism (Britannica V, 178). By modifying DNA, scientists today can eliminate some genetic diseases, they can manipulate plants and animals for increased food production and they can help protect against certain environmental hazards. Though genetic engineering is still in its infancy, its potential to benefit mankind is unprecedented. As such, it is a field that must be explored to its fullest. There are many facets to genetic engineering. The most common of these is recombinant DNA. This is a process through which the DNA of one organism is taken and combined with the DNA of another organism. The... ... Heredity: The Physical Basis of Heredity.?The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Macropedia. 15th ed., 1989. â€Å"Genetic Engineering.?The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Micropedia. 15th ed., 1989. McCuen, Gary E. Manipulating Life: Debating the Genetic Revolution. Hudson, Wisconsin: Gary E. McCuen Publications Inc., 1985. O’Neill, Terry, ed. Biomedical Ethics: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1994. Rosenthal, Nadia. â€Å"Molecular Medicine: Tools of the Trade - Recombinant DNA.?The New England Journal of Medicine 04 August 1994: 315+. Ubell, Earl. â€Å"Should You Consider Gene TestingParade 12 January 1997: 8+. Voelker, Rebecca. â€Å"A Clone by Any Other Name Is Still an Ethical Concern.?Journal of the American Medical Association 02 February 1994: 331+. Wekesser, Carol, ed. Genetic Engineering: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1994.

Economics History Essay

During the 1980s Mexico experienced what Latin American social scientists call a change in its â€Å"development model. † Gone is the import-substitution industrialization model that characterized Mexico since the 1930s. Instead, Mexico has become an open economy in which the state’s intervention is limited by a new legal and institutional framework. Under the new model, the tendency is for the market to replace regulation, private ownership to replace public ownership, and competition, including that from foreign goods and investors, to replace protection. Nothing illustrates the change in strategy more vividly than the pursuit of a free trade agreement with the United States, first mentioned by Salinas in June 1990, and the constitutional reform of land distribution and the ejido system adopted at the end of 1991 (Watling, 1992). What prompted this change in development strategy? Mexico had taken a risk in the 1970s by borrowing heavily in world capital markets and indulging in over-expansive policies, and then paid dearly when oil prices fell and world interest rates rose. Adjustment to the new circumstances required a policy that would increase net exports, generating foreign exchange to service the external debt. Because the government, not the private sector, owed most of the external debt, fiscal policy also had to change in order to increase revenues and cut noninterest expenditures. The restoration of growth required changes that would build confidence and encourage private capital inflows by means other than commercial bank loans, which were no longer available. Finally, to make the economy more flexible and competitive in a global context, the rules that governed the flow of goods and investment had to change. In mid- 1982Mexico was in a deep economic crisis. The international environment was adverse to a Mexico saddled with foreign debt. World interest rates were high, the price of oil, Mexico’s main export, was falling, and commercial banks had stopped lending. This unfavorable international environment exacerbated the consequences of domestic imbalances and contributed to rampant inflation, capital flight, and chaos in the financial and foreign exchange markets. To confront the internal imbalances and accommodate the adverse external conditions, Mexico was compelled to adjust its expenditures, reorient its output, and find new ways to foster growth. In the early 1990s Mexico gained recognition as a country successfully managing economic adjustment and reform. Inflation slowed, flight capital was returning, domestic and foreign investment was rising, and per capita output began to grow. The path to recovery, however, had been far from smooth. Well into the late 1980s, analysts wondered why Mexico’s recovery was so slow despite the sound macroeconomic policies and structural reforms it had instituted. The slow recovery imposed high social costs on the Mexican population, as per capita real disposable income fell on average by 5 percent a year between 1983 and 1988. For some six years the Mexican government focused economic policy on restoring stability, particularly on lowering the rate of inflation and keeping the loss of international reserves in check. It finally succeeded in 1988, when inflation decreased from monthly averages close to 10 percent at the beginning of the year to about 1 percent by year’s end. However, growth did not follow. Only a combination of more decisive external support and a shift in Mexico’s development strategy managed to produce a turnaround. The changes regarding the role of the state in economic matters and the country’s economic interaction with the rest of the world are particularly striking. Reforms sought to reduce state intervention and regulation so as to open new investment opportunities, build business confidence, and create a more flexible and efficient incentive structure. These reforms have called for substantial modifications in the legal and institutional frameworks of the economy that will shape the country for decades to come. In the late 1970s, on the mistaken assumption that the rise in world oil prices and the availability of cheap external credit would continue, the Mexican government engaged in a spending spree. The resulting fiscal deficit increased inflation rates and the trade deficit. The fiscal and external gaps were filled with external borrowing. In 1981, when the price of oil began to fall and external credit became more expensive and of a shorter maturity, the Mexican government failed to implement fiscal and relative price adjustments to adapt to the new, less favorable conditions. Fear of an imminent devaluation of the peso fueled capital flight, and a large nominal devaluation followed in early 1982 (Banco de Mexico, 1983). As inconsistent policies were pursued, the macroeconomic environment became increasingly chaotic. Capital flight continued, and as reserves were depleted and no more credit was available to service debt payments, in August 1982 the Mexican government had to declare an involuntary moratorium on its debt, triggering a debt crisis that soon acquired global proportions. Tensions between the private sector and the government peaked in September 1982, when the government announced the nationalization of the banking system (Banco de Mexico, 1983). When Miguel de la Madrid’s government came to power in December 1982, it confronted the unenviable task of restoring economic stability in the face of a hostile domestic private sector and reluctant external creditors. In other Latin American countries the political resistance of different social groups expressed in massive strikes or threats of coups added to the climate of economic instability and made the necessary adjustment more difficult. However, Mexico’s difficulties cannot be blamed on the political resistance of wage earners or other social groups to absorbing the costs of adjustment. In Mexico, policymakers enjoyed remarkable freedom to act during six years of economic hardship. There were no serious wage conflicts, threats from the military, peasant uprisings, or active guerrilla movements.

Theme Of Isolation In The Invisible Man - 1430 Words

Before he was known as The Invisible Man his name was Griffin. He Once was a human but then he discovered a formula that makes him invisible. He is a mad-scientist that over the years has been doing a lot of experiments such as, travelling through time and converting animals into humans. He doesn’t belong with people in the community, he doesn’t have family or friends and he lives in a world where people do not care about him at all and all he does is keeps himself isolated. Now he has to see if being invisible makes him powerful or becomes his worst nightmare. The Invisible Man develops insecurities because he isolates himself from society. He uses his wealth as well as his new identity to become isolated. From this isolation he feels†¦show more content†¦The invisible man never decided to change his ways because he’s been doing perfectly fine on his own. As he continues to thrive on his own he shall not let anyone come in his way or else he’ll put them in their place. Secondly, because The Invisible Man is very wealthy he isolates himself from the society. The Invisible Man needed a place to stay but since he knew no one in the community because he is so used to being alone, self-centered and none caring about anyone, he can’t call a friend or any sort of family member to come and help him in the current state of crisis he’s in. He had to use a lot of money to stay at the Inn, â€Å" That and a couple of sovereigns flung upon the table, he took up his quarters in the inn† (H.G Wells, Chapter 1, Page.1) This what happens when you try to isolate yourself from everyone . When you start to struggle and you’re in need of serious help, you need to use a lot of money to get out of certain situations. â€Å"If the straw makes trouble put it down in the bill. (H.G Wells, Chapter 3 Page. 23) As long as the invisible man makes any sort of mistakes such as when he made a spill on the floor, he pays the owner Mr. Hall because he kn ows he is not liked very much around the community. So any sort of trouble he creates even if he created the smallest mistake people will attack him no matter what. Since he is not well known around the community and he stays away from everyoneShow MoreRelated The Invisible Man Essay example946 Words   |  4 PagesThe Invisible Man Ralph Ellison speaks of a man who is â€Å"invisible† to the world around him because people fail to acknowledge his presence. The author of the piece draws from his own experience as an ignored man and creates a character that depicts the extreme characteristics of a man whom few stop to acknowledge. Ellison persuades his audience to sympathize with this violent man through the use of rhetorical appeal. Ethos and pathos are dominant in Ellison’s writing style. 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